II. TYPES OF SUBJECT

/according to their semantic function, i.e. the possible semantic roles of the syntactic function/

1. AGENT Sag – denotes participant who is voluntary intentional doer of the verbal action,

e.g.: The boy broke the window.

2. FORCE Sfo – denotes a natural or mechanical force which involuntarily causes an event or action to happen, 

e.g.: The wind broke the window. The avalanche destroyed the house.



3. INSTRUMENT Sinstr – denotes an implement or object which is instrumental for the verbal action,

 e.g.: The stone broke the window. The gun wounded him. The key opened the door.

N.B. Sag cannot coordinate with Sfo and S instr,

e.g.: The boy together with /and/ the wind broke the window.

4. AFFECTED Saff – denotes a participant in some way affected by the verbal action. There are different degrees of affectedness:

4.1. The lowest degree of affectedness in cases where S is involuntary performer but at the same time “suffers the consequences” unfold of the verbal action,

 e.g.: Jack fell down and his knee got hurt.

4.2. Higher degree of affectedness in expressions with the so called activo-passive verbs /active form- passive meaning/,

e.g.: The chicken is cooking. The house sold dear.

4.3. Highest affectedness – Spatient – in prototypical passives,

e.g. The chicken was cooked by my mother. The plan was developed by me.

5. RECIPIENT Srec – denotes an entity receiving sth. There are again different subtypes here:

5.1. Minimal recipient in cases of owning and possession,

e.g.: He owns a boat. My father has a radio.

5.2. In cases of reception of visual aural information,

 e.g.: He saw the girl. They heard the music. We felt the thunder.

5.3. The highest recipient – in prototypical secondary passives/where Oi corresponds to S/, 

e.g.: The girl was given an apple. The boy was showed a picture. My friend was sent a letter.

6. LOCATIVE Sloc – denotes location,

e.g.: The city is foggy. The landscape looks pleasant.

7. TEMPORAL S – e.g.: Tomorrow is a holyday.

8. EVENTIVE S – denotes an event/happening,

e.g.: The wedding is next week. The exam is tomorrow.